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MHST 601: Exploring the Effects of Colonialism on Child Intervention Services in Alberta and Yukon

  • Writer: jaxsloan
    jaxsloan
  • Nov 20, 2023
  • 8 min read

Updated: Sep 28, 2024

Indigenous Canadians make up 5% of the Canadian population but represent between 80-96% of families receiving child intervention services. Factors such as colonial rule, low average age demographic, low socioeconomic status and social isolation, contribute to the disproportionate number of Indigenous children and youth in care (DHSS, 2022). This joint blog post with fellow Master of Health Studies candidate Jane O'Hara (@Jane2Ohara) explores the historical contexts which influence modern-day Indigenous People in Alberta and Yukon, compares the family and child welfare systems’ approaches, and reflects on the changes that are being implemented to improve the health and social outcomes for Indigenous People in Canada.



Indigenous Population Representation

The 2021 Canadian Census reported that 1,807,250 people in Canada identify as Indigenous. Alberta has the fourth largest number of Indigenous residents in Canada at 6.9% (284,470 people) behind Manitoba (18.1%), Saskatchewan (17.0%) and Newfoundland and Labrador (9.3%). When compared to other provinces, Alberta has the highest proportion of Métis residents (Indigenous People, 2021). Approximately 21%-25% of Yukon residents self-identify as Indigenous, which is well above the national average of 5% (DFYBS, 2021). Of the 23% Yukon Indigenous People, 17.5% are First Nations, 3.2% are Métis and 0.7% are Inuit (Statistics Canada, 2017).


Age Distribution

Across Canada, Indigenous, First Nations, Métis and Inuit residents are significantly younger than their non-Indigenous counterparts, within the 0-23 age range. Alberta First Nations and Inuit residents have the highest number of children aged 0-14 years within their population (Indigenous People, 2021). For example, in 2021, 44.5% of Alberta’s Indigenous population was under the age of 25, as reflected in Figure 1.


Fig. 1 Age structure of population in Alberta, 2016 & 2022.


Similarly, Yukon First Nations have a lower average age of 34 years. As indicated in Figure 2, Yukon First Nations people make up 23% of their population ranging between 0-14 (Statistics Canada, 2017).




Fig 2. Distribution of Indigenous Population by Age, 2023. Retrieved from Yukon Bureau of Statistics, 2023


According to the United Nations, poor health outcomes, higher rates of disability and a reduced quality of life means Indigenous people typically die at a younger age than non-Indigenous people. On average, the “gap of life expectancy for Indigenous and non-Indigenous people in Canada is 17 years” (Health | United Nations For Indigenous Peoples, 2023).


Colonialism and its Impact on Modern Child Intervention

Indigenous People have inhabited the lands (now known as Canada) for centuries. The first recorded mass migration from Asia occurred 50,000 years ago. Indigenous People were initially able to live relatively uninterrupted lives, creating bonds with the land and building a strong cultural identity (The Indigenous Experience of European Schooling in Northern Alberta, n.d.). The influx of European migrants in the 1640s created significant shifts in the lives of Indigenous communities. The emergence of the Metis people (produced from inter-relationships between Indigenous and French settlers) changed the ethnic profile of communities and the acceleration of migration gave rise to a gap between the wealthy and poor, typically at the Indigenous Peoples’ expense. Health and social disparities emerged, along with segregated housing and the introduction of Eurocentric schooling models (History of Settlement in the Canadian Prairies, n.d.).


The Residential School System

Boarding schools were introduced to Canada in the early 1860s by European settlers. Indigenous families were encouraged to board their children on a voluntary basis. Within half a century, boarding schools evolved into a more oppressive residential school model where children were forced from their homes, often without parental consent, to endure purposeful assimilation through Christian teachings. Typically, residential schools were staffed and funded by a variety of religious groups (Yukon Government, 2023). Along with physical, psychological and sexual abuse, many children were seriously injured or lost their lives within the system (History of Settlement in the Canadian Prairies, n.d.). At their peak, Alberta operated 25 residential schools and Yukon operated 5 (Yukon Government, 2023).



Although the government started the process of phasing out residential schools in the 1950s and 60s, several remained operational as boarding schools for children whose families were deemed unable to care for them, often unfairly. Concurrently, the 1960s saw a surge of widespread apprehensions and transfers of Indigenous children into Euro-Canadian homes and child protection institutions, by aggressive child welfare systems (Navia et al., 2018). The phenomenon, often referred to as the Sixties Scoop, remained prominent until the 1980s.


The residential school system and the Sixties Scoop resulted in lasting intergenerational impacts such as knowledge and cultural gaps, reliance on government services and intergenerational trauma (Sixties Scoop, n.d.). Additionally, Navia et al., (2018) reported that in modern times, child welfare workers are more likely to investigate Indigenous families in comparison to non-Indigenous families and apprehended young people are more likely to be placed into restrictive placements for longer periods, when compared to their non-Indigenous peers. This eerily mimics the residential school system and Sixties Scoop practices of the past (Navia et al., 2018).


Impacts on Canada’s modern child intervention system

Colonization and the legacy of the residential school system continue to impact the number of Indigenous young people who are in care and the quality of child intervention service delivery in Canada. Indigenous young people continue to be disproportionately represented within the system. As of 2022, an estimated 9,451 children and youth in Alberta received child intervention services. 7,825 young people were apprehended from their home, while 1,626 received in-home supports (Child Intervention Statistics | Alberta.Ca, n.d.). The Yukon numbers are lower per individual, with up to 146 children in out-of-home care and 269 families using Family and Child Services, 80-90% of which identify as First Nations (DHSS, 2022).


Modern Child Intervention Services and Resources

The Government of Alberta works continuously to improve the quality of Child Intervention Services that are provided under the Child, Youth and Family Enhancement Act (CYFEA). The Ministry of Children and Family Services provides a policy and legislative framework for 5 regions (Calgary, Central, Edmonton, Northeast, Northwest, North Central, Southeast and Southwest regions) and supports support 19 Delegated First Nations Agencies (DFNAs) that deliver child protective services for First Nation children who reside within their boundaries. Click here for further information about DFNAs. The province has adopted a Collaborative Service Delivery model in which numerous organizations provide complementary services ranging from foster and kinship care agencies, early intervention programs, housing and support supports for children transitioning out of the child intervention system. A list of partner agencies can be found here.


Much like Alberta, several levels of governmental organizations and community-based foundations are in place in Yukon to support families at risk or using child welfare programs. Under Yukon’s Child and Family Services Act, Yukon’s Family and Children's Services (FCS) provides a continuum of services such as Agreements for Support Services for Families and voluntary preventative services responsible for out-of-home placements. The Yukon government, FCS and child welfare system work closely with First Nations representatives to provide preventative strategies to families (DHSS, 2022).


Treaties between the federal government and Indigenous groups

Treaties provide Indigenous groups with the autonomy to make laws and decisions regarding resource management, economic and social programming, land management, self-governance, tourism and traditional practices (YLTL; Yukon Government, 2023). Yukon is a leader in Indigenous Reconciliation efforts when compared to other provinces and territories (YFNSG, n.d). 11 of the Yukon’s 14 First Nations groups have signed modern treaties (Yukon Government, 2023). In contrast, 3 of a possible 11 treaties have been signed in Alberta (Smith, 2017).


Bill C-92 – affirming the right of jurisdiction over child and family services

In 2020, Bill C-92, a federal Act respecting First Nations, Inuit and Métis children, youth and families, was introduced to shift power to Indigenous communities to develop their own child and family services. This movement towards self-governance is anticipated to improve outcomes for young people by de-colonizing the current system through the provision of a more culturally appropriate and traditional practice model. As of April 2023, three nations in Alberta have signed agreements with the federal government under the Act. Yukon has not signed an agreement as yet.


Federal Assistance for Families and Children in Care

On January 4, 2022, Canada announced it had reached an Agreement-in-Principle with the Assembly of First Nations, the First Nations Child and Family Caring Society, the Chiefs of Ontario and the Nishnawbe Aski Nation on long-term First Nations Child and Family Services (GoC, 2023). It is anticipated the agreements will lead to Increased federal funding and support for children who no longer meet territorial funding and for youth who have reached age of majority (GoC, 2023)




Conclusion

Historical colonialist agendas, residential school systems and persistent racism continue to impact Indigenous People at a disproportionate rate, as reflected in both Alberta and the Yukon. This has led to a poorer socioeconomic status and the inability to provide safe living conditions for children and youth who require child intervention services. To address this disparity, provincial and federal governments are actively working with Indigenous People to develop preventative strategies to reduce the reliance on child welfare services, and to provide culturally appropriate, community-based out-of-home placements and to shift decision-making powers to Indigenous groups. It is hoped that Alberta and Yukon’s ongoing efforts at the provincial level, in conjunction with strategies at the federal level, will begin to improve health and social outcomes for Indigenous families in the coming years.




References


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Delegated First Nation Agencies | Alberta.ca. (n.d.). Retrieved November 17, 2023, from https://www.alberta.ca/delegated-first-nation-agencies


Department of Finance Yukon Bureau of Statistics, DFYBS (2021). Indigenous Peoples, 2021 Census. Yukon Government. Retrieved from TOPIC: (yukon.ca)


Department of Health and Social Services, DHSS (2022). Family and Children’s Services Annual Report 2020-2022. Yukon Government. Retrieved from https://yukon.ca/sites/yukon.ca/files/hss/cfsa_annual_report_2020-2022.pdf


Dreaddy, K. (2019). Indigenous Obstetric Evacuation: Harmful but Risky to Resist. Impact Ethics. https://impactethics.ca/2019/12/19/indigenous-obstetric-evacuation-harmful-but-risky-to-resist/


Founding First Nations sign agreement with Canada, Alberta to run own child and family services | Globalnews.ca. (n.d.). Global News. Retrieved November 18, 2023, from https://globalnews.ca/news/9615224/founding-first-nations-agreement-canada-alberta-child-family-services/


Government of Canada, S. C. (2017, February 8). Focus on Geography Series, 2016 Census - Yukon. https://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2016/as-sa/fogs-spg/Facts-PR-Eng.cfm?TOPIC=9&LANG=Eng&GK=PR&GC=60





History of Settlement in the Canadian Prairies. (n.d.). Retrieved November 18, 2023, from https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/prairie-west

Indigenous People. (n.d.). 2021 Census of Canada. Alberta.Ca. Retrieved November 19, 2023, from https://open.alberta.ca/dataset/487a7294-06ac-481e-80b7-5566692a6b11/resource/257af6d4-902c-4761-8fee-3971a4480678/download/tbf-


Map of First Nations Reserves and Metis Settlements | Alberta.ca. (n.d.). Retrieved November 17, 2023, from https://www.alberta.ca/map-of-first-nations-reserves-and-metis-settlements


Navia, Daniela, et al. “Uncovering Colonial Legacies: Voices of Indigenous Youth on Child Welfare (Dis)Placements.” Anthropology & Education Quarterly, vol. 49, no. 2, June 2018, pp. 146–64, https://doi.org/10.1111/aeq.12245


Ross, C. (2019). The Indigenous experience of European schooling in Northern Alberta. Alberta History, 67(3), 2+. https://0-link-gale-com.aupac.lib.athabascau.ca/apps/doc/A596318774/EAIM?u=atha49011&sid=bookmark-EAIM&xid=444d37fc


Smith, L. T. (n.d.). Ten things to know about Indigenous people and resource extraction in Alberta. Parkland Institute. Retrieved November 19, 2023, from https://www.parklandinstitute.ca/ten_things_to_know_about_indigenous_people_and_resource_extraction_in_alberta


Sixties Scoop. (n.d.). Retrieved November 18, 2023, from https://indigenousfoundations.arts.ubc.ca/sixties_scoop/


Statistics Canada. 2017. Focus on Geography Series, 2016 Census. Statistics Canada Catalogue no. 98-404-X2016001. Ottawa, Ontario. Data products, 2016 Census. Retrieved from Focus on Geography Series, 2016 Census (statcan.gc.ca)


The Yukon First Nations. (n.d.). Travel Yukon - Yukon, Canada | Official Tourism Website for the Yukon Territory. Retrieved November 20, 2023, from https://www.travelyukon.com/en/discover-yukon/yukon-first-nations


Yukon Archives (2021). Colonialism, Archive and Yukon First Nations: A Guide to Public Records in Yukon Archives Documenting the History of Colonization in Yukon. Retrieved from Colonialism, Archives and


Yukon Bureau of Statistics for Child Care Services Unit, YBSCCS (2006). Yukon Child Care Survey: Report on the Results of the Yukon Licensed Child Care Services User Questionnaire.. Yukon Government. Retrieved from https://yukon.ca/sites/yukon.ca/files/ybs/fin-yukon-child-care-survey-long-version-2006.pdf


Yukon Bureau of Statistics, YBS (2023). Population Report, Second Quarter, 2023. Statistics and Data. Retrieved from https://yukon.ca/sites/yukon.ca/files/ybs/fin-population-report-q2-2023.pdf


Yukon First Nation Self-Government, YFNSG (n.d.). Mapping the Way: Our Journey to Land Claims and Self-Government. Retrieved from Mappingtheway.ca | Yukon First Nation Self-Government


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